Monday, August 4, 2008
Biography: Gandhi
Mohandas “Mahatma” Gandhi was one of the most influential and admired figures in history, especially Indian history. His childhood in India, time spent in England as well as his stay in South Africa influenced the development of his values, attitudes and the ideologies that he implemented in India in order to ensure the country’s independence from the British forces.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Gujarat, India, on the second of October, 1869. Gandhi was born in a town that swore it’s allegiance to the British Crown; therefore, it was allowed a degree of independence in its local affairs. His father, Karmachand Gandhi was prime minister of his town, Porbander and his mother, Putlibai, was Karmachand’s fourth wife. Neither of his parents were very well educated, however, as a result of his father’s political status his family was financially well-off and had a higher socio-economic status when compared to others who lived in the town.
Gandhi was born during the Victorian era when the British Empire was slowly reaching its pinnacle and India was “the jewel in the crown” of Queen Victoria’s empire. While having huge benefits for the British Empire, the takeover of the Mughuls, the previous rulers of the region, a majority of Indians, especially people who had a lower socio-economic status, did not feel that there was a large difference. This is because at the time, India did not have a common language, a history of democracy nor the political precedent of a better form of government/ ruling system. Indians simply felt that they had replaced a corrupt ruling system with a more efficient one.
Gandhi’s child hood was not at all indicative of the intellectual ability that would shine through in his later life. He was a mediocre student and was not interested in religion. At the age of thirteen, he married a fourteen year old girl, Kasturbai. Having to face the trials and tribulations of marriage at such a young age might explain his strong hostility towards this practice, declaring it cruel and inhumane. As Gandhi was male, he was given a much higher degree of independence and freedom than women were in this rather patriarchal society.
One of the beliefs that Gandhi espoused was the belief in religious diversity and equality. Although he was a strong believer of his Hindu faith, he was still accepting of many different religions. This could be largely due to the fact that Gandhi’s childhood home often had visitors of many different faiths and beliefs. Gandhi’s parents were both accepting of different religions and this therefore instilled this tolerance in him.
In 1885, Gandhi’s father, Karamchand, passed away and young Mohandas was the most suitable candidate to take his position as head of family. In order to make it easier for Gandhi to become a local politician, his family decided to send him to London to study law. However, Gandhi’s mother and the elders of his caste, the Modh Banias, protested against the trip as they felt a trip to Europe would indubitably lead to impurity as they did not believe Hinduism could be successfully practiced in Europe. Gandhi promised his mother that he would not succumb to “western” urges such as wine, women and meat and that he would instead say in accordance to his Hindu beliefs and customs. Gandhi was determined to go to Europe so he allowed himself to be expelled from his caste by his elders, which made him an out-caste for the remainder of his life. This show of the inflexibility of the caste system which Gandhi worked hard to eradicate in India would have been one of the things which furthur provoked his outrage and dissaproval of the system.
As a result, Gandhi sailed for England in September of 1888 at the age of nineteen. There he found himself isolated from Westerners mainly because of his inability to properly grasp the language. He also found it difficult to persist with a vegetarian diet. In order to make this task easier, Gandhi joined the “London Vegetarian Society” and eventually assumed a position as its committee member.
Gandhi worked hard to pass the bar and was enrolled as a barrister in June, 1891. After going back to his home, where he received the unfortunate news that his mother had passed away, Gandhi tried, unsuccessfully to find a job teaching law in Bombay. As a result of many setbacks such as this career-wise, Gandhi decided to go home and earn a living by writing briefs and legal documents for the politicians in his home town. This was one of the first times Gandhi was directly exposed to the petty corruption that had encumbered the British Ruling system.
Gandhi then accepted a job from a Muslim Indian Firm to travel to South Africa to advise on a lawsuit. South Africa at the time was displaying a tendency for the racism that would later manifest itself in the “apartheid policy” so Indians, although being less discriminated than black people, were still considered to be inferior to white Europeans. Gandhi found himself a victim of this racism many times during his stay in South Africa, the first of these being when he refused to give up his first class ticket on a train to a white passenger and was thus forced to wait outside on a Transvaal train station.
Gandhi returned to Bombay to collect his wife and children as it was clear to him that he would be spending a significant time of his life in South Africa. Gandhi remained in South Africa for twenty years and suffered imprisonment numerously. He was attacked and beaten by white South Africans during his return to the country from Bombay. As a result of this and the train injustice, Gandhi initiated an organized resistance against the British rule with the Indians residing in South Africa. He urged Indians to unite in spite of their religious differences and only then, he asserted, would they be able to achieve political equality. This was where he introduced the idea of a spiritual ideology, Satyagraha, which is based on non-violence as the guiding principle of his political activism.
During this time, Gandhi read for the first time John Ruskin's book Unto This Last, which maintained that the life of labour using your hands instead of machines was superior to all other ways of living. Gandhi quickly implemented the ways promoted in this book in his own life, abandoning western dress and habits and moving his family to a farm in Transvaal to lead a simpler lifestyle.
During the Boer War, Gandhi organized an ambulance corps for the British army and commanded a Red Cross unit. After the war he returned to his campaign for Indian rights in South Africa and as a result 1914 saw the government of the Union of South Africa making important concessions to Gandhi's demands, including recognition of Indian marriages and abolition of the poll tax for them. As a result of this exemplary success, almost unheard of, through the implementation of Satyagraha, Gandhi felt his work in South Africa was done and promptly returned to Bombay.
Because of his success with Satyagraha, Gandhi found himself a celebrity known throughout India for his success in political activism. His return to India was greeted in extreme enthusiasm where crowds cried “Mahatma-ji” which meant great soul and was a token of their respect for him.
Gandhi spent his first year of his life in India away from a public life and travelled around the country to familiarize himself with the country. He then became involved in the nation’s politics and became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement. During that time Gandhi carried out protests against the British rule through the use of Satyagraha repeatedly. However, one of these protests turned violent and as a result the British forces used guns to overpower the protestors. The official British tally for the bloody afternoon was 379 killed and 1,137 wounded. This was one of the main reasons why politicians such as Gandhi went from moderately pushing for independence to outright rebellion. It also settled the hostile climate between the British and the Indians that would gain further animosity during the twenty five year struggle for India’s independence.
In 1920, when the British government failed to make amends for the Amritsar Massacre, Gandhi proclaimed an organized campaign of noncooperation. Indians in public office resigned, government agencies such as courts of law were boycotted, and Indian children were withdrawn from government schools. Gandhi was arrested, but the British were soon forced to release him.
Although Gandhi felt that economic independence for India was important, he felt that the need for a self ruling India was a more important course. As British Industrialists exploited the Indian villagers and left them in dire poverty, Gandhi decided to try and encourage the return to a simple lifestyle and the renewal of Indian industries.
Gandhi was imprisoned for sedation shortly after for almost two years. During this time, his efforts for a non violent approach to gaining the independence of India essentially fell apart. This is mainly because the different regions of India could not unite as they had different languages, castes and most importantly, religion. Gandhi that united Brahmins and untouchables, Hindus and Muslims in the struggle against the British as he assured them that Independence was only feasible if they all bound together and fought together.
By 1922, Gandhi had deemed that the time was right for a move from non-cooperation into outright civil disobedience. This movement was more active than the non cooperation movement and brought about a revolution of sorts. This movement aimed at bringing the British administration to a stop by withdrawing support from everything. There was agitation against land revenue, abolition of salt tax, cutting down military expenditure and levying duty on foreign cloth.
Gandhi then became president of the Indian National Congress in 1925, however, kept himself withdrawn from the public eye. During this time he worked diligently to bring about reforms in areas of Indian life and to eradicate things such as untouchability and discrimination against women. Gandhi's one last shot at the Indian Nationalist movement was the Quit India movement, following the same principle of Satyagraha.
One of the pivotal points of Gandhi’s struggle for India’s independence from Britain was the salt march to Dandi in protest of the British tax on salt. On March 12, 1930, Gandhi and approximately 78 male satyagrahis set out for the coastal village of Dandi. At Dandi, he and several followers broke the law by making their own salt in seawater. This was one of the events which lead to India finally receiving its official declaration of Independence in August 1947.
Gandhi was assassinated on the 30th of January 1948 by a Hindu nationalist named Nathuram Vinayuk Godse who came up to him in one of his nightly garden walks, and shot him with a pistol. The feeling of people, in India especially, and around the world was encapsulated in the address by Nehru: "the light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere."
Gandhi united India under the one banner. He gave the nation a strong identity and unified the different religions and castes. His political teachings still have huge bearings in India where people follow his simple ways of life and promote non violent political activism. He showed that political change could be achieved without the use of violence and death which saw the implementation of Satyagraha in many situations in the world. The legacy he left behind is Gandhi’s biggest achievement because his ideals and ways of life inspired continue to inspire, people such as Martin Luther King Jr, Nelson Mandela and several other politicians who would follow his example for many years.
Bibliography
Books
E Eswaran, 1992, Gandhi, The man, India, Nilgiri Press
InternetGandhi’s Childhood and youth, 2008 [online]. [29th July 2008]. Available from World Wide Web, http://www.dadalos.org/int/vorbilder/vorbilder/gandhi/leben.htm,
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, 2008, [online]. [28th July 2008]. Available from World Wide Web, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi
Timeline of Gandhi’s Life, 2008, [online] [1rst August 2008]. Aviliable from World Wide Web http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/mkgtimeline.htm
Pictures
http://www.intervoiceonline.org/assets/2006/12/3/Gandhi_1.jpg
http://gvctemp01.virtualclassroom.org/rights/gandhi/saltmarch.jpg
Wednesday, April 16, 2008
Sustainable Societies!
Introduction
Many past societies have collapsed however a select few have overcome certain problems and sustained themselves for a large period of time. What is it that sets these societies apart and makes them sustainable societies? The term sustainable means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. www.bemarchitect.com/ glossary.shtml) This is the definition I have chosen to base my report as I feel it is the most succinct and self explanatory one. In order to be declared fully sustainable, a society must be successful in all the different factors. As there is a word limit on this report, I shall only discuss each factor briefly.
The first factor which affects sustainability is the Environment, which branches off into resource management and other factors. The second factor is relationships with other countries/ societies which branches off into warfare and trade. And the third factor is internal structure which includes government and flexibility of Culture and religious beliefs. The fourth and final factor is economy. All these factors are inextricably intertwined and achieving sustainability in one aspect will make it easier to be sustainable in the others.
Environmental Factors
In order for a society to achieve complete sustainability it is essential that it has a healthy ecosystem and manages their resources and waste products successfully. Due to the word limit on this assignment I will focus on only one aspect which is Resource Management.
Resource Management
In order for a society to be sustainable it needs manage its resources successfully. By managing resources successfully, a society must have enough of the resource for the present but should also consider the future and manage resources so they have enough to meet their needs at all times. Environmental resource management is especially critical as many of the collapsed societies failed as they did not manage their environmental resources properly, especially wood and water. This aspect like all the others is connected with flexible culture/ belief system as poor resource management can usually only be overcome if the ruling culture/ belief system can evolve and change to adapt to the problem. This is clearly evident in the cases of the Mayans and Easter Island as they did not adapt their religious practices in order to better manage their environmental resources.
One example of a civilization that managed their environmental resources very poorly is the Easter Islanders. They severely depleted their environmental resources through deforestation and this in turn led to their collapse as it made their ecosystem more fragile. The Mayans also severely deforested their once plentiful forests which in turn severely harmed many other aspects of their environment such as top soil condition etc. Their deforestation, combined with overpopulation and outside factors ultimately led to their demise. Both these civilizations did not think of the problems caused in the future by their heavy deforestation and therefore did not successfully manage their resources.
Tokugawa Japan used to take part in heavy deforestation which put them on the verge of societal collapse. However, the elite and the masses of Japan recognised the need to preserve their forests as they expected their present and future problems to be solved with present resources due to their isolated location, lack of foreign trade and renunciation. Also at the time, Japan was experiencing political stability and had confidence in their future which encouraged the leaders to plan and manage resources for the future. As a result Japan introduced a range of policies which combined with social support eradicated deforestation and helped their environment become more sustainable. This example clearly shows how good resource management leads to the society becoming more sustainable however just achieving sustainability in this aspect alone will not make the society fully sustainable. In order to achieve complete sustainability the society must achieve stability in all the aspects.
Relationships with other countries/societies.
In order to achieve sustainability in this area, the society in question needs to have successful relationships with its neighbouring societies. These relationships can include those for trading resources as well as alliances in time of war. It is vital that the society has either got weak enemies or strong alliances as otherwise it will be prone to attacks and invasions. Therefore, in order to be sustainable in this area, a society must have powerful allies and strong enemies and useful trade partners if they are needed. Although this aspect might not have been entirely relevant in the past when geographically isolated societies did not have any relationships with neighbouring societies, it is of vital importance now mainly due to the technological advances which make it easy to attack, invade and trade with countries that are geographically far apart.
Warfare
In order to prevent Invasion and attack the society needs to have a strong army or powerful alliances. Countries that can be easily invaded need the support of stronger and more powerful countries in order to be sustainable. One example of a society that had a powerful army which made made them virtually impenetrable was the Roman Empire. They concentrated all their resources into making a very strong army that invaded new land and were quite impenetrable and safe from attack. For some countries such as Switzerland that has maintained a strict neutrality when it comes to war and would not need to build a strong army as they don’t have to partake in wars.
One country that makes uses of its alliances in order to ensure its safety is Canada. Canada could easily be invaded by other countries however they are allies with America. America is probably the biggest threat to Canada as it can easily invade it as it is geographically close and is much larger and more powerful than Canada. Being allied with America also protects them from other enemies as America, being the most powerful country at the moment will attack anyone who tries to invade or declare war on Canada. Another country that avoids invasion/attack because of having powerful allies is Bhutan. It is quite prone to attack from neighbouring countries however have become allies with them which ensures their safety.
Trade
Trade is also an important factor in relationships between different countries/societies. Those who have limited resources in one area due to environmental/economical restrictions can trade with other countries to obtain more resources.
Internal Structure
The internal structure of the society is important in the quest to achieve complete sustainability. It is important that the ruling body/ government are interested in the welfare of the society as a whole and are not corrupt. It is also essential that the society is willing to adapt their culture and systems of beliefs in order to address problems in the most efficient way.
Government
The government or ruling body of a society plays a key role in determining how sustainable the society is as they make the major decisions which affect all the other aspects of this framework. It is therefore vital that the government is transparent and not corrupt. It is important that the leaders of the government are looking after the wider societies concerns and not their own. In addition, they need to be willing to adapt to solve problems that befall them.
Flexibility of Culture and Religious beliefs.
In order to be sustainable, the society must have a flexible culture or system of beliefs. They need to be flexible in order to adapt to the environment and to properly address and solve problems that befall them. If a society has a flexible culture they can usually withstand pressure from the environment, war or severe climate change as they develop new ways to manage resources that benefit their current situation. This is similar to one of Jared Diamond’s points in the framework: Response to society. This aspect is linked to every other as a problem in one of the other aspects can be overcome if the leaders/government of the society is willing to change their cultural and religious beliefs to adapt to the crisis at hand.
One example of a society that collapsed due to the inflexibility in their religious beliefs and culture was the Mayans. They were affected by a severe drought and had limited resources. Yet, they continued with their deforestation in order to fulfil religious obligations. If they had adapted their belief system in order to save precious resources they would have been a sustainable civilization. This is similar to the Easter Islanders who also collapsed due to inflexibility in their religious beliefs who created Moai statues by depleting their resources and further exacerbating their fragile ecosystem and this is what ultimately lead to their collapse. Japan is an example of a flexible culture which resolved their problems when in relation to the deforestation problem they had. (For more information refer to Resource Management) They modified their cultural practices and averted possible collapse.
Economy
A stable economy is vital to a societies success. In order to have a successful economy, its investments should be less than its returns or gains in order to make it profitable and it should also have positive terms of trade.
Trade is also an important factor of a successful economy. Those who have limited resources in one area due to environmental/economical restrictions can trade with other countries to obtain more resources.
Other factors that are indicative of a good sustainable economy include
· Low unemployment rate,
· Low expenditure and borrowing
· High availability of basic goods and services.
· Government investment in the industry to help lower the reliance of imported goods.
A society that exemplifies these factors is Singapore as it has a strong and stable economy despite its small size. Despite its lack of natural resources, it concentrates on manufacture and export and remains with budget and trade surpluses. As a result, Singapore has a successful economy which results in it being more sustainable.
Another country that is flourishing in the economical sector is Switzerland. Despite having little natural resources it still has one of the world’s most advanced and prosperous economies. Trade is a key part in Switzerland’s economy as the country is dependent on exporting goods for its income. In addition, it also imports resources to expand the range of goods available in the country.
Conclusion
This is just a brief framework of factors that lead to a societies sustenance for a long period of time. All these factors are interwoven and a society will therefore only achieve total sustainability if all of the factors are sustainable and stable. It is important for countries that are on the verge of collapse now to address their problems in order to achieve sustainability.
References
Internet
"Collapse of the Greenland Norse", 2008, Nathan Axtens, docs.google.com/Doc?id=df4nvf23_9cbqbzfdx
"Fall of the Roman Empire", 2008, Sean Ding, docs.google.com/View?docid=dccp4pm7_5cxmc6jgw
"Collapse of the Easter Islanders", 2008, Harry Bird, exsephiroth.blogspot.com/
“Economy of Switzerland”, 2004, http://www.indopedia.org/Economy_of_Switzerland.html
Japanese history, http://discovermagazine.com/1998/jun/japaneseroots1455
Sustainable development, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html
Economy of singapore, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Singapore
Sustainable Development, http://www.oecd.org/topic/0,2686,en_2649_37425_1_1_1_1_37425,00.html
Sustainable development, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development
Books
Diamond, Jared M. (2005) Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Viking Books, New York
Many past societies have collapsed however a select few have overcome certain problems and sustained themselves for a large period of time. What is it that sets these societies apart and makes them sustainable societies? The term sustainable means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. www.bemarchitect.com/ glossary.shtml) This is the definition I have chosen to base my report as I feel it is the most succinct and self explanatory one. In order to be declared fully sustainable, a society must be successful in all the different factors. As there is a word limit on this report, I shall only discuss each factor briefly.
The first factor which affects sustainability is the Environment, which branches off into resource management and other factors. The second factor is relationships with other countries/ societies which branches off into warfare and trade. And the third factor is internal structure which includes government and flexibility of Culture and religious beliefs. The fourth and final factor is economy. All these factors are inextricably intertwined and achieving sustainability in one aspect will make it easier to be sustainable in the others.
Environmental Factors
In order for a society to achieve complete sustainability it is essential that it has a healthy ecosystem and manages their resources and waste products successfully. Due to the word limit on this assignment I will focus on only one aspect which is Resource Management.
Resource Management
In order for a society to be sustainable it needs manage its resources successfully. By managing resources successfully, a society must have enough of the resource for the present but should also consider the future and manage resources so they have enough to meet their needs at all times. Environmental resource management is especially critical as many of the collapsed societies failed as they did not manage their environmental resources properly, especially wood and water. This aspect like all the others is connected with flexible culture/ belief system as poor resource management can usually only be overcome if the ruling culture/ belief system can evolve and change to adapt to the problem. This is clearly evident in the cases of the Mayans and Easter Island as they did not adapt their religious practices in order to better manage their environmental resources.
One example of a civilization that managed their environmental resources very poorly is the Easter Islanders. They severely depleted their environmental resources through deforestation and this in turn led to their collapse as it made their ecosystem more fragile. The Mayans also severely deforested their once plentiful forests which in turn severely harmed many other aspects of their environment such as top soil condition etc. Their deforestation, combined with overpopulation and outside factors ultimately led to their demise. Both these civilizations did not think of the problems caused in the future by their heavy deforestation and therefore did not successfully manage their resources.
Tokugawa Japan used to take part in heavy deforestation which put them on the verge of societal collapse. However, the elite and the masses of Japan recognised the need to preserve their forests as they expected their present and future problems to be solved with present resources due to their isolated location, lack of foreign trade and renunciation. Also at the time, Japan was experiencing political stability and had confidence in their future which encouraged the leaders to plan and manage resources for the future. As a result Japan introduced a range of policies which combined with social support eradicated deforestation and helped their environment become more sustainable. This example clearly shows how good resource management leads to the society becoming more sustainable however just achieving sustainability in this aspect alone will not make the society fully sustainable. In order to achieve complete sustainability the society must achieve stability in all the aspects.
Relationships with other countries/societies.
In order to achieve sustainability in this area, the society in question needs to have successful relationships with its neighbouring societies. These relationships can include those for trading resources as well as alliances in time of war. It is vital that the society has either got weak enemies or strong alliances as otherwise it will be prone to attacks and invasions. Therefore, in order to be sustainable in this area, a society must have powerful allies and strong enemies and useful trade partners if they are needed. Although this aspect might not have been entirely relevant in the past when geographically isolated societies did not have any relationships with neighbouring societies, it is of vital importance now mainly due to the technological advances which make it easy to attack, invade and trade with countries that are geographically far apart.
Warfare
In order to prevent Invasion and attack the society needs to have a strong army or powerful alliances. Countries that can be easily invaded need the support of stronger and more powerful countries in order to be sustainable. One example of a society that had a powerful army which made made them virtually impenetrable was the Roman Empire. They concentrated all their resources into making a very strong army that invaded new land and were quite impenetrable and safe from attack. For some countries such as Switzerland that has maintained a strict neutrality when it comes to war and would not need to build a strong army as they don’t have to partake in wars.
One country that makes uses of its alliances in order to ensure its safety is Canada. Canada could easily be invaded by other countries however they are allies with America. America is probably the biggest threat to Canada as it can easily invade it as it is geographically close and is much larger and more powerful than Canada. Being allied with America also protects them from other enemies as America, being the most powerful country at the moment will attack anyone who tries to invade or declare war on Canada. Another country that avoids invasion/attack because of having powerful allies is Bhutan. It is quite prone to attack from neighbouring countries however have become allies with them which ensures their safety.
Trade
Trade is also an important factor in relationships between different countries/societies. Those who have limited resources in one area due to environmental/economical restrictions can trade with other countries to obtain more resources.
Internal Structure
The internal structure of the society is important in the quest to achieve complete sustainability. It is important that the ruling body/ government are interested in the welfare of the society as a whole and are not corrupt. It is also essential that the society is willing to adapt their culture and systems of beliefs in order to address problems in the most efficient way.
Government
The government or ruling body of a society plays a key role in determining how sustainable the society is as they make the major decisions which affect all the other aspects of this framework. It is therefore vital that the government is transparent and not corrupt. It is important that the leaders of the government are looking after the wider societies concerns and not their own. In addition, they need to be willing to adapt to solve problems that befall them.
Flexibility of Culture and Religious beliefs.
In order to be sustainable, the society must have a flexible culture or system of beliefs. They need to be flexible in order to adapt to the environment and to properly address and solve problems that befall them. If a society has a flexible culture they can usually withstand pressure from the environment, war or severe climate change as they develop new ways to manage resources that benefit their current situation. This is similar to one of Jared Diamond’s points in the framework: Response to society. This aspect is linked to every other as a problem in one of the other aspects can be overcome if the leaders/government of the society is willing to change their cultural and religious beliefs to adapt to the crisis at hand.
One example of a society that collapsed due to the inflexibility in their religious beliefs and culture was the Mayans. They were affected by a severe drought and had limited resources. Yet, they continued with their deforestation in order to fulfil religious obligations. If they had adapted their belief system in order to save precious resources they would have been a sustainable civilization. This is similar to the Easter Islanders who also collapsed due to inflexibility in their religious beliefs who created Moai statues by depleting their resources and further exacerbating their fragile ecosystem and this is what ultimately lead to their collapse. Japan is an example of a flexible culture which resolved their problems when in relation to the deforestation problem they had. (For more information refer to Resource Management) They modified their cultural practices and averted possible collapse.
Economy
A stable economy is vital to a societies success. In order to have a successful economy, its investments should be less than its returns or gains in order to make it profitable and it should also have positive terms of trade.
Trade is also an important factor of a successful economy. Those who have limited resources in one area due to environmental/economical restrictions can trade with other countries to obtain more resources.
Other factors that are indicative of a good sustainable economy include
· Low unemployment rate,
· Low expenditure and borrowing
· High availability of basic goods and services.
· Government investment in the industry to help lower the reliance of imported goods.
A society that exemplifies these factors is Singapore as it has a strong and stable economy despite its small size. Despite its lack of natural resources, it concentrates on manufacture and export and remains with budget and trade surpluses. As a result, Singapore has a successful economy which results in it being more sustainable.
Another country that is flourishing in the economical sector is Switzerland. Despite having little natural resources it still has one of the world’s most advanced and prosperous economies. Trade is a key part in Switzerland’s economy as the country is dependent on exporting goods for its income. In addition, it also imports resources to expand the range of goods available in the country.
Conclusion
This is just a brief framework of factors that lead to a societies sustenance for a long period of time. All these factors are interwoven and a society will therefore only achieve total sustainability if all of the factors are sustainable and stable. It is important for countries that are on the verge of collapse now to address their problems in order to achieve sustainability.
References
Internet
"Collapse of the Greenland Norse", 2008, Nathan Axtens, docs.google.com/Doc?id=df4nvf23_9cbqbzfdx
"Fall of the Roman Empire", 2008, Sean Ding, docs.google.com/View?docid=dccp4pm7_5cxmc6jgw
"Collapse of the Easter Islanders", 2008, Harry Bird, exsephiroth.blogspot.com/
“Economy of Switzerland”, 2004, http://www.indopedia.org/Economy_of_Switzerland.html
Japanese history, http://discovermagazine.com/1998/jun/japaneseroots1455
Sustainable development, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html
Economy of singapore, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Singapore
Sustainable Development, http://www.oecd.org/topic/0,2686,en_2649_37425_1_1_1_1_37425,00.html
Sustainable development, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development
Books
Diamond, Jared M. (2005) Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Viking Books, New York
Thursday, March 20, 2008
Collapse: Ancient Maya
Introduction
Mayanists (those who study the Mayan civilization) marvel at the fact that one of the greatest civilizations that produced awe-inspiring temples and pyramids, accurate calendars, mathematics and hieroglyphic writing, and a complex social and political order could have collapsed. By the Mayan collapse I refer to the classic collapse which occurred during 750 A.D and 950 A.D and not the later invasion by the Spanish conquerors which occurred in 1750. Some of the theories of collapse include epidemic disease, earthquakes, drought, and agricultural collapse, the severing of trade routes, a peasant revolution, and invasion. Although some focus on these theories individually, most archaeologists believe that it was a combination of all these diferent factors that caused the mayan collapse.
I think that the main cause of collapse for the Mayans was overpopulation and poor resource management. The resources could have been affected by climate change (a severe drought) however with proper resource management I think they could have averted the crisis. So the depletion of resources and the expansion of the society created big problems as there were not enough resources to sustain the large population. In addition, the rulers of the cities were not adapting to the change but instead used the same techniques such as resource depletion through building large monuments to compete with each other and for warfare with different cities. I believe that the collapse could have been averted if the belief system was adapted to fit the situation and to manage resources more successfully. I think that the main mistake made by the rulers/kings was that they failed to see into the future and to manage resources for the future which always leads to collapse. Instead, they got caught up in their wars and stupid egotistical practices and basically doomed their civilization.
Causes of collapse according to Jared Diamond’s Five Step framework
Jared Diamond’s theory is that the collapse of the Maya can b artributed to a combination of environmental damage, climate change, hostile neighbours and societal response that played a role in the collapse of the society. (Jared Diamond, 2006, Collapse: How societies choose to fail or survive)
Jared Diamond’s theory can be summarized into a few points:
· He says that one strand is that population growth was in outstripping available resources which is similar to situations in Rwanda and Haiti.
· The effects of deforestation and hillside erosion which exacerbated the already present drought and decreased the amount of useble farmland
· Increased warfare that contributed to the collapse as more and more people fought over fewer and fewer resources.
· The kings and nobles failed to notice the problem that was griping their society and instead focused on enriching themselves for short term gain.
Environmental Damage
The Mayan’s deforested their environment heavily and this lead to hillside erosion as well as the exacerbation of the climate change problem. They deforested in order for wood to help build their large pyramids and structures and also used a form of agriculture which was not beneficial to the environment and rendered a lot of their much needed farmland useless. This made the Mayans heavily reliant on seasonal crops which were not very reliable especially when affected by drought and poor soil nutrition. They depleted a lot of their environmental resources for religious purposes and when the effects of this damage was felt, they responded by constructing more religious shrines and further exacerbating of the environmental damage. In addition, Overpopulation put a huge strain on the environment and its resources and resulted in social and political anxiety.
Climate Change
Another theory that Jared Diamond explores is that rapid climate change could have brought about an intense drought that could have contributed to the Maya collapse. He described the Mayan climate as a seasonal desert and said that the Mayans seemed to experience drought in a pattern of 208 years. Researchers studied sediment cores drilled from the Cariaco Basin, off northern Venezuela, and have discovered many chemicals and molecules which are only present during times of drought. They identified three periods of intense drought that occurred at 810, 860 and 910AD and these three dates correspond to the three periods of Mayan Collapse. Since the environment was so dry and unsuitable for farming at the time, the Mayans would have had a shortage of their staple food, corn which could also result in the downfall of the armies
However one must question if drought alone could have caused the downfall of the Maya. For example, the northern Yucatan city of Chichen Itza was flourishing although it was on the driest land. In addition, another rebuttal to this theory is that Mayans had plenty of experience in hydraulics and built canals, viaducts and reservoirs and had experiences and survived severe droughts before. In addition, the classic collapse hit different centres of the Maya civilization at different times and this would cause people to be skeptical of the role one huge drought as if that were the explanation, all the centres would have been hit at the same time.
Hostile Neighbours-
Archaeological reports show that warfare became more intense and frequent leading up to the time of the Mayan collapse. The Mayans never unified into a single empire like the Aztec Empire or the Valley of Mexico, but instead fought with each other. It was hard for them to fight lengthy battles or to go distances as they did not have food supplies to sustain them. I think that if the Mayan empire had unified and all the kingdoms had helped to deal with the problems posed by environmental destruction and climate change, the crisis could have been averted.
Loss of Trade Partners
Although Jared Diamond does not think this was a reason that was critical to its collapse I think that it contributed somewhat to the civilization’s downfall. The Mayans had an intricate trade system and were especially reliant on the central Mexican city of Teotihuacán. Teotihuacan declined rapidly at around 650 to 700 and limited Mayan economic and trade functions which could have triggered the decline of the entire civilization. However, many people argue that trade route discontinuation is more likely to be an effect rather than a cause of the Maya collapse as Mayans did not trade in items that were essential to its sustenance such as food and primary goods. Instead it traded in luxury items such as Obsidian, Feathers and Cacao.
Societal Response-
I think that the societies response to the above four points is the dominant factor. Religious inflexibility and lack of adaptation to the new problems created will result in the collapse of a civilization. This is clearly illustrated in the Mayans as the rulers did not try to avert collapse by modifying their belief system but kept on making religious structures and effigies that depleted their Environmental resources further.
However, we must keep in mind that the Mayans had no idea that what they were doing was detrimental to their society because at the time they did not know that their problems were being caused by a drought or by climate change. They thought that the gods were angry at them and to please the gods, the Mayans made more sacrifices and caused more resource depletion. We must keep in mind that it is very difficult to change a belief system that has served you well for hundreds of years and would it would probably have never occurred to the Mayans that all their problems were not caused by their gods anger and was instead caused by their own mistakes and mad decision making.
My Modifications to the five point framework
Although this framework is quite applicable in discerning the reasons behind the Mayan Collapse, I think that some new categories need to be added as the model does not entirely represent all the possible reasons for collapse. I think that the categories that need to be added include epidemic disease and civil disputes.
Epidemic Disease
I think that an epidemic of a contagious disease could have aided the collapse of the Mayans. This can tie in with the Climate change argument as disease often stems from malnutrition, famine which are a product of intense drought. I do not think that disease alone could have caused the downfall of the Maya but that it helped hasten it with the aid of other reasons such as Climate change and environmental Damage.
Civil Disputes
Civil Disputes, especially the peasant revolt could have had a major impact in the collapse. Those disputes regarding ownership of farmable land could have been a major factor contributing to the Mayan collapse as the society was not unified and some of the peasants did not obey the kings and rulers which created chaos and havoc in the society and could have contributed to the collapse.
Joseph Tainter’s Framework
Joseph Tainter’s framework is quite different to Jared Diamonds as Diamond focuses more on the environmental aspects leading to the collapse of a civilization whereas Tainter says that collapse is the result of diminishing returns or results on an investment. Tainter’s model framework consists of three models which are “The Dinosaur”, “The House Of Cards” and “The Runaway Train”.”The dinosaur” is when a society consumes its resources at an exponential rate, and its leaders do nothing to solve the problem but rely heavily in old beliefs and methods which don’t work anymore. “The Runaway train” is basically when the civilization needs economic growth in order to sustain itself and if this growth stops, the civilization will collapse. The Roman Empire is an example of this type of collapse. “House of Cards” is when the society has grown so big and complex that when a small problem hits it, it has a higher chance of collapsing.
I think that Tainters mode of the “Dinosaur” could be used successfully to find the dominant factor in the collapse of the Mayans which was that they started to deplete their resources heavily which could be due to climate change or increased warfare which limited resources and because the rulers and kings did nothing to modify their belief system which was clearly not helping them.
The most applicable model would be Joseph Tainters as it is less rigid than Jared Diamonds as diamond focuses more on environmental pressures where as Tainter says that environmental destruction does not explain collapse. I think this is a valid point as sometimes ancient societies collapse without environmental destruction and sometimes environmental destruction occurs but does not result in the collapse of society because of good resource management and modification of beliefs/ laws to manage the environmental problem. In addition, Tainters model offers a broader picture which can be used more efficiently to compare ancient civilizations with modern ones.
I think that the modification I made to Jared Diamonds model would make it more applicable to the Mayan civilization but it’s still not as efficient as Tainters model.
Comparison with different societies
The Mayan society can be compared with Easter Island. The main similarities between them are that both civilizations depleted their resources because of a belief system that could not adapt and change to fit better with the problems they were facing. The Mayans deforested and depleted their resources by making statues and pyramids of their gods because they were facing a drought. This only caused further problems as the environment became more fragile and the civilization became weaker. Easter Island also depleted their resources through environmental destruction, especially deforestation, in order to build their large stone platforms and statues for burials and other religious artifacts. When all their environmental damage started to take a toll on their civilization, they responded with more deforestation for building more religious statues. Clearly the main cause of collapse for both civilizations is that their belief systems did not adapt to face the severe problems they had regarding environmental stress and climate change. Also, population problems in both civilizations led to increasing warfare and civil disputes and this was followed quickly by social and political collapse.
What can contemporary society learn from the collapse of the Mayans?
Although our modern society has different problems and concerns from ancient civilizations such as the Mayans, we can still learn from their mistakes as well as their successes. I think the main thing that we can learn is that we need to adapt our values system to any sort of problem we are having.
Most of our modern societies such as Australia are being severely affected by climate change just as the Maya were. However if we stick to our previous ways (making lots of carbon emissions etc.) our society will be likely to collapse, just like the Maya who did not modify their belief system. We need to adapt our ways and become more environmentally friendly to avoid collapse.
Also many countries are deforesting a lot which is very detrimental to the environment as it causes and exacerbates many problems that are present. They should learn from the Maya and try to regenerate their resources in order to avoid collapse.
I think that contemporary society has a lot to learn from the collapse of ancient civilization especially the Mayans. I hope we take in all these lessons so that in the future we can avoid collapsing and turning into some other civilization’s SOSE project.
Mayanists (those who study the Mayan civilization) marvel at the fact that one of the greatest civilizations that produced awe-inspiring temples and pyramids, accurate calendars, mathematics and hieroglyphic writing, and a complex social and political order could have collapsed. By the Mayan collapse I refer to the classic collapse which occurred during 750 A.D and 950 A.D and not the later invasion by the Spanish conquerors which occurred in 1750. Some of the theories of collapse include epidemic disease, earthquakes, drought, and agricultural collapse, the severing of trade routes, a peasant revolution, and invasion. Although some focus on these theories individually, most archaeologists believe that it was a combination of all these diferent factors that caused the mayan collapse.
I think that the main cause of collapse for the Mayans was overpopulation and poor resource management. The resources could have been affected by climate change (a severe drought) however with proper resource management I think they could have averted the crisis. So the depletion of resources and the expansion of the society created big problems as there were not enough resources to sustain the large population. In addition, the rulers of the cities were not adapting to the change but instead used the same techniques such as resource depletion through building large monuments to compete with each other and for warfare with different cities. I believe that the collapse could have been averted if the belief system was adapted to fit the situation and to manage resources more successfully. I think that the main mistake made by the rulers/kings was that they failed to see into the future and to manage resources for the future which always leads to collapse. Instead, they got caught up in their wars and stupid egotistical practices and basically doomed their civilization.
Causes of collapse according to Jared Diamond’s Five Step framework
Jared Diamond’s theory is that the collapse of the Maya can b artributed to a combination of environmental damage, climate change, hostile neighbours and societal response that played a role in the collapse of the society. (Jared Diamond, 2006, Collapse: How societies choose to fail or survive)
Jared Diamond’s theory can be summarized into a few points:
· He says that one strand is that population growth was in outstripping available resources which is similar to situations in Rwanda and Haiti.
· The effects of deforestation and hillside erosion which exacerbated the already present drought and decreased the amount of useble farmland
· Increased warfare that contributed to the collapse as more and more people fought over fewer and fewer resources.
· The kings and nobles failed to notice the problem that was griping their society and instead focused on enriching themselves for short term gain.
Environmental Damage
The Mayan’s deforested their environment heavily and this lead to hillside erosion as well as the exacerbation of the climate change problem. They deforested in order for wood to help build their large pyramids and structures and also used a form of agriculture which was not beneficial to the environment and rendered a lot of their much needed farmland useless. This made the Mayans heavily reliant on seasonal crops which were not very reliable especially when affected by drought and poor soil nutrition. They depleted a lot of their environmental resources for religious purposes and when the effects of this damage was felt, they responded by constructing more religious shrines and further exacerbating of the environmental damage. In addition, Overpopulation put a huge strain on the environment and its resources and resulted in social and political anxiety.
Climate Change
Another theory that Jared Diamond explores is that rapid climate change could have brought about an intense drought that could have contributed to the Maya collapse. He described the Mayan climate as a seasonal desert and said that the Mayans seemed to experience drought in a pattern of 208 years. Researchers studied sediment cores drilled from the Cariaco Basin, off northern Venezuela, and have discovered many chemicals and molecules which are only present during times of drought. They identified three periods of intense drought that occurred at 810, 860 and 910AD and these three dates correspond to the three periods of Mayan Collapse. Since the environment was so dry and unsuitable for farming at the time, the Mayans would have had a shortage of their staple food, corn which could also result in the downfall of the armies
However one must question if drought alone could have caused the downfall of the Maya. For example, the northern Yucatan city of Chichen Itza was flourishing although it was on the driest land. In addition, another rebuttal to this theory is that Mayans had plenty of experience in hydraulics and built canals, viaducts and reservoirs and had experiences and survived severe droughts before. In addition, the classic collapse hit different centres of the Maya civilization at different times and this would cause people to be skeptical of the role one huge drought as if that were the explanation, all the centres would have been hit at the same time.
Hostile Neighbours-
Archaeological reports show that warfare became more intense and frequent leading up to the time of the Mayan collapse. The Mayans never unified into a single empire like the Aztec Empire or the Valley of Mexico, but instead fought with each other. It was hard for them to fight lengthy battles or to go distances as they did not have food supplies to sustain them. I think that if the Mayan empire had unified and all the kingdoms had helped to deal with the problems posed by environmental destruction and climate change, the crisis could have been averted.
Loss of Trade Partners
Although Jared Diamond does not think this was a reason that was critical to its collapse I think that it contributed somewhat to the civilization’s downfall. The Mayans had an intricate trade system and were especially reliant on the central Mexican city of Teotihuacán. Teotihuacan declined rapidly at around 650 to 700 and limited Mayan economic and trade functions which could have triggered the decline of the entire civilization. However, many people argue that trade route discontinuation is more likely to be an effect rather than a cause of the Maya collapse as Mayans did not trade in items that were essential to its sustenance such as food and primary goods. Instead it traded in luxury items such as Obsidian, Feathers and Cacao.
Societal Response-
I think that the societies response to the above four points is the dominant factor. Religious inflexibility and lack of adaptation to the new problems created will result in the collapse of a civilization. This is clearly illustrated in the Mayans as the rulers did not try to avert collapse by modifying their belief system but kept on making religious structures and effigies that depleted their Environmental resources further.
However, we must keep in mind that the Mayans had no idea that what they were doing was detrimental to their society because at the time they did not know that their problems were being caused by a drought or by climate change. They thought that the gods were angry at them and to please the gods, the Mayans made more sacrifices and caused more resource depletion. We must keep in mind that it is very difficult to change a belief system that has served you well for hundreds of years and would it would probably have never occurred to the Mayans that all their problems were not caused by their gods anger and was instead caused by their own mistakes and mad decision making.
My Modifications to the five point framework
Although this framework is quite applicable in discerning the reasons behind the Mayan Collapse, I think that some new categories need to be added as the model does not entirely represent all the possible reasons for collapse. I think that the categories that need to be added include epidemic disease and civil disputes.
Epidemic Disease
I think that an epidemic of a contagious disease could have aided the collapse of the Mayans. This can tie in with the Climate change argument as disease often stems from malnutrition, famine which are a product of intense drought. I do not think that disease alone could have caused the downfall of the Maya but that it helped hasten it with the aid of other reasons such as Climate change and environmental Damage.
Civil Disputes
Civil Disputes, especially the peasant revolt could have had a major impact in the collapse. Those disputes regarding ownership of farmable land could have been a major factor contributing to the Mayan collapse as the society was not unified and some of the peasants did not obey the kings and rulers which created chaos and havoc in the society and could have contributed to the collapse.
Joseph Tainter’s Framework
Joseph Tainter’s framework is quite different to Jared Diamonds as Diamond focuses more on the environmental aspects leading to the collapse of a civilization whereas Tainter says that collapse is the result of diminishing returns or results on an investment. Tainter’s model framework consists of three models which are “The Dinosaur”, “The House Of Cards” and “The Runaway Train”.”The dinosaur” is when a society consumes its resources at an exponential rate, and its leaders do nothing to solve the problem but rely heavily in old beliefs and methods which don’t work anymore. “The Runaway train” is basically when the civilization needs economic growth in order to sustain itself and if this growth stops, the civilization will collapse. The Roman Empire is an example of this type of collapse. “House of Cards” is when the society has grown so big and complex that when a small problem hits it, it has a higher chance of collapsing.
I think that Tainters mode of the “Dinosaur” could be used successfully to find the dominant factor in the collapse of the Mayans which was that they started to deplete their resources heavily which could be due to climate change or increased warfare which limited resources and because the rulers and kings did nothing to modify their belief system which was clearly not helping them.
The most applicable model would be Joseph Tainters as it is less rigid than Jared Diamonds as diamond focuses more on environmental pressures where as Tainter says that environmental destruction does not explain collapse. I think this is a valid point as sometimes ancient societies collapse without environmental destruction and sometimes environmental destruction occurs but does not result in the collapse of society because of good resource management and modification of beliefs/ laws to manage the environmental problem. In addition, Tainters model offers a broader picture which can be used more efficiently to compare ancient civilizations with modern ones.
I think that the modification I made to Jared Diamonds model would make it more applicable to the Mayan civilization but it’s still not as efficient as Tainters model.
Comparison with different societies
The Mayan society can be compared with Easter Island. The main similarities between them are that both civilizations depleted their resources because of a belief system that could not adapt and change to fit better with the problems they were facing. The Mayans deforested and depleted their resources by making statues and pyramids of their gods because they were facing a drought. This only caused further problems as the environment became more fragile and the civilization became weaker. Easter Island also depleted their resources through environmental destruction, especially deforestation, in order to build their large stone platforms and statues for burials and other religious artifacts. When all their environmental damage started to take a toll on their civilization, they responded with more deforestation for building more religious statues. Clearly the main cause of collapse for both civilizations is that their belief systems did not adapt to face the severe problems they had regarding environmental stress and climate change. Also, population problems in both civilizations led to increasing warfare and civil disputes and this was followed quickly by social and political collapse.
What can contemporary society learn from the collapse of the Mayans?
Although our modern society has different problems and concerns from ancient civilizations such as the Mayans, we can still learn from their mistakes as well as their successes. I think the main thing that we can learn is that we need to adapt our values system to any sort of problem we are having.
Most of our modern societies such as Australia are being severely affected by climate change just as the Maya were. However if we stick to our previous ways (making lots of carbon emissions etc.) our society will be likely to collapse, just like the Maya who did not modify their belief system. We need to adapt our ways and become more environmentally friendly to avoid collapse.
Also many countries are deforesting a lot which is very detrimental to the environment as it causes and exacerbates many problems that are present. They should learn from the Maya and try to regenerate their resources in order to avoid collapse.
I think that contemporary society has a lot to learn from the collapse of ancient civilization especially the Mayans. I hope we take in all these lessons so that in the future we can avoid collapsing and turning into some other civilization’s SOSE project.
Bibliography
Books
Diamond,(2006) Collapse How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive, Penguin, USA
Harris, (1993), Lost Civilizations, MF publishing Group, New York
Internet
Maya Culture Collapse: Current Theory Last updated 16/03/2008 13:15:20 -0600© 2005 Copyright, Authentic Maya http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_culture_collapse.htm
American Scientist Online, http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/44510?fulltext=true,
2005.Wikipedia, Societal Collapse, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_collapse, 2008
Werewolf Rampant, Sunday, March 16, 2008 http://flight-of-the-phoenix.blogspot.com/2008/03/summary-of-theories-about-collapse-of.html
Sunday, February 10, 2008
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)